Why do the younger generation harbor bitterness towards their elders?
A) The War
B) Traditional Roles in a Japanese household
To get a feel for the great, empire of Japan one must investigate what made it so great. During the 1930’s Japan was coming out of a great depression and so that meant the country had to keep stimulating its economy by means: occupation of other countries and war. The nobles were getting rich and commoners had jobs; all was well in Japan. Not only that but Japan’s culture was thriving again as it did during the beginning of the 19th century. For instance, the code of Bushido, has influenced Japanese military when it comes to honor. The code reads if you break a rule then it’s “dishonorable” and you must commit suicide in order to regain your honor. And as you read Kazuo Ishiguro’s An Artist of The Floating World you hear of the war crimes committed by certain individuals and how they “apologize” to the families who have lost individuals to the war by committing suicide.
Back to the original question however is why do the young people feel they have the right to disrespect their elders? An obvious reason we can all give is that we’re tired of having our father’s tell us what to do just because they’re the patriarch and that’s how it should be in a traditional Japanese household. For instance when Misuji Ono recalls how his father used to neglect him from being in the reception area because of his “business”, it just made Misuji want to pursue a different career path. Why? Masuji explains, “ I meant I wish to rise above such a life”(47) . Masuji did not think it was right for his father to judge artists for being “weak” , especially go even to say they live in poverty and squalor. To get a bigger picture I shall explain a little clearer. I’m assuming since Masuji’s father father is a businessman that they’re rich, and to find out that your only son wants to be a artist is bringing shame to the name of the family. So it’s not about Masuji or what he wants but what dad wants for himself and the family name. This creates the bitterness which Masuji transforms to ambition for his future career in painting.
The second reason for the cause of bitterness between generations is the affects of post-war. Let’s all imagine we live in Japan and we love it; to see it destroyed by bombs from American planes upsets you a lot in fact it ignites this hate that you eventually vent it towards the older generation who got the country in this mess. This brings us to another recollection of Masuji with the infamous Jiro Miyake. What’s interesting about this encounter is the conversation Miyaki leads about his deceased boss. He justifies that it was right of the president to die in order for the employees to, "... forget our past transgressions and look to the future. It was a great thing our president did"(55). Awful, just terrible how this younger person speaks to defy the choices the elder made during the war - it's all past! But it seems the consequences of the war follow everyone.
To be continued....
Wednesday, January 19, 2011
Two Different Worlds
When two different countries from opposite sides of the globe combine, the results are quite surprising. Kazuo Ishiguro attempts to create a sort of complex word by both contrasting the different qualities in America and Japan and also mixing them throughout the offspring of Masuji Ono. Ishiguro is able to show the transition from the pre-Pearl Harbor era to the atomic bomb aftermath, showing the slow dilution of Japanese culture.
Masuji Ono, the protagonist of the story, is known to have been a famous artist. When he mets the daughters of Sugimura, who "was unquestionably amongst the city's most respected and influental men."(Ishiguro pg 7), he is praised by them, "He (Sugimura) had much respect for artists. Indeed, he knew of your work."(pg 9) Unsurprisingly, Sugimura was also an artist. What I noticed about this is that the Japanese had much respect for artists. Not the artist that sing hip-hop or appear in Hollywood movies, but the ones who do actual art- paintings, murals, masterpieces.
There is also a deep sense of patriotism and securing the right future for your children and their children. Ono was one the people behind the imperialist movement that eventually pushed Japan into getting involved in WWII. However both Ono and Sugimura, who happened to be very well respected man, have quite a bit of differences with the children of the current times of the latter part of the first hundred pages.
Ono's grandson Icharo, appears to be a weird, complex kid. The first scene where I noticed this was when Icharo was pretending to be a cowboy, which is a crucial part of West American culture at the time the book was written. However, Icharo is also interested in painting. There is a scene where Ono notices that Icharo is a "promising" kid. The problem comes when Ono invites Icharo to the movies- Icharo somehow loses concentration to the point where "the shapes merged and became meaningless."(pg 34) Then all of a sudden he gets up and speaks cowboy. Ishiguro does this to show how the combination of American and Japanese values led to a bit of chaos- the "shapes merged and became meaningless".
After thinking about these two passages, I gathered more clues from my own knowledge. I know that once the the Japanese surrendered to the Americans, they had to give up their military, or most of it. Americans then volunteered to become the Japanese army. That move probably brought in quite a bit of globalization and a strange mix of cultures. I mean, look at Japan today- it's a place full of technology with mass population and a fast-growing economy and population. I probably need to keep reading more, but what I am getting is that Ishiguro wants to use Ono in order to reflect his views on the slow loss of original Japanese culture, that is, before the war.
What is Ono's bridge to the war?
As one reads the very first lines in Kazuo Ishiguro's An Artist of the Floating World, one gets introduced to "the Bridge of Hesitation". The Bridge of Hesitation is brought up a couple of times in the first 100 pages. The Bridge of Hesitation is both a physical place and metaphor, obviously like the metaphor of the floating world in the title. Each time the Bridge of Hesitation is brought up, there are different options at the end of the bridge. In the beginning of the book, the bridge is a gateway to a beautiful house that "stands out from all others nearby" (Ishiguro 7). This beautiful house is the house of the main character Ono. This house is his present. The next time the Bridge of Hesitation gets mentioned is when it's referring to the view of the remains of the old pleasure system. This is the result of World War II. All these remains are the past, because in the present these are actually fixed. So how does this Bridge of Hesitation relate to Ono?
Throughout the novel, Ono jumps around from story to story. He never sticks to one subject or time frame; it is back and forth between past and present. As we know, Ono is the amazing artist in the novel, and he is floating between the worlds of past and present. This Bridge of Hesitation seems to be his path between both worlds. He hesitates to choose one or the other.
In times of war, the means of surrender shows weakness. In order to honor oneself, if defeated in battle, one would have to take up responsibility and commit an act that would bring honor once again, usually suicide. The Japanese actually had a sword to perform this act. This sword is known as the harakiri. The sword is curved and it is supposed to be inserted in one's lower abdomen. Once inside, since the sword is curved, the curved part goes directly towards the heart and punctures it, resulting with a faster death. In a conversation with a prospective son-in-law, he finds that some of the younger generation sees the act of suicide as a waste of men. A soldier already went through a great ordeal, and although he didn't lose his life, he has to live through what he has committed with the rest of his life.
It appears that in some parts, Ono agrees that committing suicide is a waste, but in other parts he doesn't want to agree that the war itself was a waste. I say this because he stopped painting after Japan lost the war. Clearly his grandson's father thought so because in page 32 it mentions, "Father says you had to finish. Because Japan lost the war". The painting got him well known as artist, which is one of the reasons that got him the beautiful house he resides in. It also got him a lot of acknowledgements from different people. It seems the war was a sort of motivation. Either way Ono finds himself in a Bridge of Hesitation. Both endings are either the house or the results of the war, and they both seem to connect. Why is it that he sees suicide as a waste but he doesn't see the war as a waste, even though the loss of it is what makes people commit suicide to maintain their honor? Is there more behind it? How was he involved exactly?
Throughout the novel, Ono jumps around from story to story. He never sticks to one subject or time frame; it is back and forth between past and present. As we know, Ono is the amazing artist in the novel, and he is floating between the worlds of past and present. This Bridge of Hesitation seems to be his path between both worlds. He hesitates to choose one or the other.
In times of war, the means of surrender shows weakness. In order to honor oneself, if defeated in battle, one would have to take up responsibility and commit an act that would bring honor once again, usually suicide. The Japanese actually had a sword to perform this act. This sword is known as the harakiri. The sword is curved and it is supposed to be inserted in one's lower abdomen. Once inside, since the sword is curved, the curved part goes directly towards the heart and punctures it, resulting with a faster death. In a conversation with a prospective son-in-law, he finds that some of the younger generation sees the act of suicide as a waste of men. A soldier already went through a great ordeal, and although he didn't lose his life, he has to live through what he has committed with the rest of his life.
It appears that in some parts, Ono agrees that committing suicide is a waste, but in other parts he doesn't want to agree that the war itself was a waste. I say this because he stopped painting after Japan lost the war. Clearly his grandson's father thought so because in page 32 it mentions, "Father says you had to finish. Because Japan lost the war". The painting got him well known as artist, which is one of the reasons that got him the beautiful house he resides in. It also got him a lot of acknowledgements from different people. It seems the war was a sort of motivation. Either way Ono finds himself in a Bridge of Hesitation. Both endings are either the house or the results of the war, and they both seem to connect. Why is it that he sees suicide as a waste but he doesn't see the war as a waste, even though the loss of it is what makes people commit suicide to maintain their honor? Is there more behind it? How was he involved exactly?
Who is Suichi?
“It’s just that Suichi persists in asking me from time to time about last year, about why the Miyakes should have pulled out like that. He seems convinced I know some secret and that we’re all keeping it from him. I have to continually reassure him that I have no idea myself.” (p.18) Words like “persists”, “convinced”, “secret”, “keeping”, “continually” and “reassure” define the thinking process of Suichi, which illustrates part of his character. He is a character who is mentioned about four times in this book. Although he isn’t mentioned as much as the other major characters, one can easily realize the influential impact Suichi has on others.
One example that portrays this impact is on page 36 when Ono tells Setsuko that before the War, people weren’t allowed to watch American films. Setsuko then tells Ono that Suichi enlightened Ichiro that “American heroes are better for children.” (p. 36) Suichi influences Ichiro to become more open-minded and embrace other cultures other than his own. Now, Ichiro seems intrigued by the idea of idolizing cowboys because they seem better that ninjas and samurais. After constantly accusing Setsuko of knowing a secret about why the Miyakes declined the marriage offers, he persuades her to believe that Ono is withholding information from the rest of the family. When Setsuko questions Ono about any secrets, Ono quickly notices her suspicions. He gets irritated with Suichi because his views are “irrational.” (p.50) His irrational views are causing Ono to resent him because they contradict what he is trying to teach his daughters.
Suichi specifically asserts his mind. He is a profound speaker, according to Setsuko, because she says he “expresses things better.” (49)He is a “physically powerful man”, according to anyone who crosses his path, who is an innocent human being. (p.58) Ono enjoyed listening to the wit of Suichi but ever since the War, Suichi has become bitter. Now, he gets angry during funerals because he believes that his comrades died for “stupid causes.” (p.58)To him, “the greatest cowardice of all” is that the perpetrators who sent out these brave souls to do their dirty work are still alive. (p.58) “Suichi’s generation” have all become bitter because they have experienced these tragic affairs that many brave souls died from. (p.61) These experiences have caused people around him to dislike him to an extent.
I’ve noticed that he hardly ever comes around Setsuko’s family even though he is a very influential man. This is something I couldn’t quite figure out. Is it because he is afraid that people around him will remind him of his fallen comrades? Is it because he despises his country? Or is it because he dislikes Setsuko’s family?
One example that portrays this impact is on page 36 when Ono tells Setsuko that before the War, people weren’t allowed to watch American films. Setsuko then tells Ono that Suichi enlightened Ichiro that “American heroes are better for children.” (p. 36) Suichi influences Ichiro to become more open-minded and embrace other cultures other than his own. Now, Ichiro seems intrigued by the idea of idolizing cowboys because they seem better that ninjas and samurais. After constantly accusing Setsuko of knowing a secret about why the Miyakes declined the marriage offers, he persuades her to believe that Ono is withholding information from the rest of the family. When Setsuko questions Ono about any secrets, Ono quickly notices her suspicions. He gets irritated with Suichi because his views are “irrational.” (p.50) His irrational views are causing Ono to resent him because they contradict what he is trying to teach his daughters.
Suichi specifically asserts his mind. He is a profound speaker, according to Setsuko, because she says he “expresses things better.” (49)He is a “physically powerful man”, according to anyone who crosses his path, who is an innocent human being. (p.58) Ono enjoyed listening to the wit of Suichi but ever since the War, Suichi has become bitter. Now, he gets angry during funerals because he believes that his comrades died for “stupid causes.” (p.58)To him, “the greatest cowardice of all” is that the perpetrators who sent out these brave souls to do their dirty work are still alive. (p.58) “Suichi’s generation” have all become bitter because they have experienced these tragic affairs that many brave souls died from. (p.61) These experiences have caused people around him to dislike him to an extent.
I’ve noticed that he hardly ever comes around Setsuko’s family even though he is a very influential man. This is something I couldn’t quite figure out. Is it because he is afraid that people around him will remind him of his fallen comrades? Is it because he despises his country? Or is it because he dislikes Setsuko’s family?
The Balanc
Throughout this scene, Ishiguro displays Ichiro’s mature, demanding and independent character. He does this through descriptive detail and demanding diction. When Ichiro noticed he was being watched, he “angrily turned” to shout, “Can’t you see I’m busy?” (p. 29) Soon after, he tells his grandfather that he couldn’t play with him at the moment in a screeching way. After a while, he allows his grandfather to watch him as long as he wasn’t disturbed. Ichiro is descriptively described as being watchful and moody showing how serious he was about his drama. His demanding diction shows how his difference with other characters. While others are scared to say the wrong thing to someone, Ichiro speaks his mind freely.
He stands out from the rest of the characters because unlike him, everyone seems like their life is being drained. The other characters seem as though they don’t have any meaning left. Setsuko is being brain washed by her husband Suichi, Ono is focusing too much on what used to be, and Noriko is concentrating too much on her current marriage arrangements. Ichiro’s eagerness to repeat English while pretending to be Lone Ranger shows how he is ready to adapt to other cultures and is open-minded. He is eager to go watch Godzilla while the others aren’t that enthusiastic about it. His dissimilarity with his family balances them. He makes up for the lack of enthusiasm in his family.
Something that I notice is a reoccurring object is the veranda. Setsuko and Ono are always out there relaxing. I believe they find that place to be their sanctum to retreat from their stress. There has to be reason why that place is their place to retreat. Is it because they grew up in a house that had a veranda as well? Maybe it’s because the veranda brings them closer with nature.
In the first section that we read, Noriko’s previous marriage arrangement an issue that was unsolved. The sisters have suspicions of the arrangement because they believed it was a “love match.” (p.18) They assume Ono had something to do with it or at least knows why it didn’t work out as planned. He claims that he knows nothing about what went wrong. On page 53, Noriko comes across Jiro Miyake. She talks to him like they were friends without having any arrangements made earlier. This says something about her character because she acts like nothing happened even though she was in love with him. Does this mean that she is strong willed and won’t let a bad incident keep her from being happy or does this mean she keeps things bottled up inside so well that it looks like she is happy?
He stands out from the rest of the characters because unlike him, everyone seems like their life is being drained. The other characters seem as though they don’t have any meaning left. Setsuko is being brain washed by her husband Suichi, Ono is focusing too much on what used to be, and Noriko is concentrating too much on her current marriage arrangements. Ichiro’s eagerness to repeat English while pretending to be Lone Ranger shows how he is ready to adapt to other cultures and is open-minded. He is eager to go watch Godzilla while the others aren’t that enthusiastic about it. His dissimilarity with his family balances them. He makes up for the lack of enthusiasm in his family.
Something that I notice is a reoccurring object is the veranda. Setsuko and Ono are always out there relaxing. I believe they find that place to be their sanctum to retreat from their stress. There has to be reason why that place is their place to retreat. Is it because they grew up in a house that had a veranda as well? Maybe it’s because the veranda brings them closer with nature.
In the first section that we read, Noriko’s previous marriage arrangement an issue that was unsolved. The sisters have suspicions of the arrangement because they believed it was a “love match.” (p.18) They assume Ono had something to do with it or at least knows why it didn’t work out as planned. He claims that he knows nothing about what went wrong. On page 53, Noriko comes across Jiro Miyake. She talks to him like they were friends without having any arrangements made earlier. This says something about her character because she acts like nothing happened even though she was in love with him. Does this mean that she is strong willed and won’t let a bad incident keep her from being happy or does this mean she keeps things bottled up inside so well that it looks like she is happy?
Bridge of Hesitation
The bridge of hesitation is an image that is repeated three times through out the first one hundred pages. This is the bridge that leads to the ruined pleasure district. At the height of the war, the pleasure district was thriving due to the patriotic feelings that were around at the time. The pleasure district allowed the opportunity for patriotic artists to gather and entertain themselves without going against what their country mandated at the time.
The fate of the pleasure district was tied to the World War and as the War ended and the bombs were dropped, the pleasure district disintegrated. The only connection to it is through the bridge of hesitation. My question is why is this bridge named so?
If I had to make a guess as to why dub the bridge hesitation, I would say that it has to do with the hesitation that the Japanese elders have with being associated as patriots in the time before the war. The reason that they hesitate is that there is a huge cultural gap between the generations of people that were active during the war and those that came after. Both generations are Japanese, but the latter was brought up in America’s shadow, whereas the elders are truly Japanese. In Japanese culture, surrendering was a great shame, in fact the Japanese would charge machine gun lines and get mowed down to preserve their honor, but after the war, the younger generations saw this as a waste of life and resented their losses in the war. The younger generations basically became westernized, while the elders held a grudge.
An example of such grudge is seen when Ichiro is pretending to be a cowboy and Oji asks him if it wouldn’t be more enjoyable to pretend to be a Japanese warrior. Oji doesn’t reprimand Ichiro, but it does appear that he isn’t pleased with his nephew’s fascination with western culture. Oji even tries to distract Ichiro from playing cowboy by having him draw, however this fails and Ichiro is soon galloping away.
Another instance that shows hesitation in being connected to the past arises again when Oji seeks out his old acquaintances to ask them to watch their words if they are ever approached by a detective in regard to his past. Things that might have been considered honorable and brought pride in the past only bring shame in the present.
The bridge of hesitation leads to the wrecked heart of Japanese patriotism, however, so soon after the war, people have mixed feelings and hesitate to remember the past because all that exists in the past is pain. Aside from this, if you take a look at the way the younger people feel about the war and their opinions of their elders, it is easy to see why some might be hesitant to show their true colors.
The fate of the pleasure district was tied to the World War and as the War ended and the bombs were dropped, the pleasure district disintegrated. The only connection to it is through the bridge of hesitation. My question is why is this bridge named so?
If I had to make a guess as to why dub the bridge hesitation, I would say that it has to do with the hesitation that the Japanese elders have with being associated as patriots in the time before the war. The reason that they hesitate is that there is a huge cultural gap between the generations of people that were active during the war and those that came after. Both generations are Japanese, but the latter was brought up in America’s shadow, whereas the elders are truly Japanese. In Japanese culture, surrendering was a great shame, in fact the Japanese would charge machine gun lines and get mowed down to preserve their honor, but after the war, the younger generations saw this as a waste of life and resented their losses in the war. The younger generations basically became westernized, while the elders held a grudge.
An example of such grudge is seen when Ichiro is pretending to be a cowboy and Oji asks him if it wouldn’t be more enjoyable to pretend to be a Japanese warrior. Oji doesn’t reprimand Ichiro, but it does appear that he isn’t pleased with his nephew’s fascination with western culture. Oji even tries to distract Ichiro from playing cowboy by having him draw, however this fails and Ichiro is soon galloping away.
Another instance that shows hesitation in being connected to the past arises again when Oji seeks out his old acquaintances to ask them to watch their words if they are ever approached by a detective in regard to his past. Things that might have been considered honorable and brought pride in the past only bring shame in the present.
The bridge of hesitation leads to the wrecked heart of Japanese patriotism, however, so soon after the war, people have mixed feelings and hesitate to remember the past because all that exists in the past is pain. Aside from this, if you take a look at the way the younger people feel about the war and their opinions of their elders, it is easy to see why some might be hesitant to show their true colors.
The Patriotic Artist
Being introduced to Japan in 1948 during the after-affect of the Second World War through the eyes of Masuji Ono, an elite artist, I began to question: what does the war have to do with the overall theme of an artist living in a floating world? Three different aspects from Ono’s life helped me answer that question in which we will see.
As Ono takes us down his time-line to when he was an adolescent receiving business meetings from his father, it’s evident that he inherited his philosophy of the way one must show respect to his elders, and how one must live with dignity from his father’s strict manner. Then as Ono gets older he tells his mother, “I have no wish to find myself in years to come, sitting where Father is now, telling my own son…I wish to rise above such a life”(47). I found this interesting because it takes a soldier to go against his parent’s will being raised in a strict household. I bring this aspect up because after reading this, I recognized the uniqueness and courage of Ono to say such a thing and actually go through with it. I knew from there I would be reading something that would include how Ono would change things in Japan some way. Then once it was obvious that Ono was an artist, I knew he would change Japan with his art and heart of a lion.
Later into the reading when it talked about Ono’s favorite bar the Migi-Hidari, which was back then known as Yagmata’s, and how it gained it’s name from an old veteran soldier, I knew it would have something to do with the how the war tied into the theme of an artist living in a floating world. Ono spoke of this place not possessing “the new spirit of Japan” (64) in which he described as something that beholds loyalty to Communism and the authorities controlling everything. I conclude this because the authorities were trying to run things in Japan and Ono believes that everywhere else possessed this “new spirit” except the Migi-Hidari where as Ono told us, “one could get drunk with pride and dignity” (74). He also told us that this bar was one where only elite artists would gather and converse and use their paintings such as, “The Patriotic Spirit,” (74) as a form of combat to the communism going on in Japan which was before the war. From this Migi-Hidari being “a proud and respectable atmosphere” (75), I see it that these artist are playing the role that soldiers would for earning their county’s independence, but they are fighting for the way they think things should be in Japan, therefore they are patriotic artists in my book.
Another aspect of my finding to how the war ties to artist living in a floating world relates to when Ono worked for his first firm and why he decided to leave to work for the painter and print maker Seiji Moriyama. While Ono worked for Master Takeda’s firm as an artist, he soon was fed up with the “unhappy working conditions” (65) and disloyalty going on in the firm so he decided to leave. I saw this as a patriotic move on his behalf because after he explained to Tortoise what he had learned from working at the firm. Ono told Tortoise while he was strolling around on Tamagawa grounds, “While it was right to look up teachers, it was important to question their authority… To rise above the undesirable and decadent influences that have swamped us and have done so much to weaken the fibre of our nation these past ten years” (73).
With all of theses aspects of Ono’s life, I find it that the war symbolizes what Ono is trying to do as an artist floating in the world not holding his own two feet on the ground, and is literally connected to why the war got started which I believe awaits us later in the novel.
Ishiguro, Kazuo. An Artist Of The Floating World. New York Vintage international:1989
As Ono takes us down his time-line to when he was an adolescent receiving business meetings from his father, it’s evident that he inherited his philosophy of the way one must show respect to his elders, and how one must live with dignity from his father’s strict manner. Then as Ono gets older he tells his mother, “I have no wish to find myself in years to come, sitting where Father is now, telling my own son…I wish to rise above such a life”(47). I found this interesting because it takes a soldier to go against his parent’s will being raised in a strict household. I bring this aspect up because after reading this, I recognized the uniqueness and courage of Ono to say such a thing and actually go through with it. I knew from there I would be reading something that would include how Ono would change things in Japan some way. Then once it was obvious that Ono was an artist, I knew he would change Japan with his art and heart of a lion.
Later into the reading when it talked about Ono’s favorite bar the Migi-Hidari, which was back then known as Yagmata’s, and how it gained it’s name from an old veteran soldier, I knew it would have something to do with the how the war tied into the theme of an artist living in a floating world. Ono spoke of this place not possessing “the new spirit of Japan” (64) in which he described as something that beholds loyalty to Communism and the authorities controlling everything. I conclude this because the authorities were trying to run things in Japan and Ono believes that everywhere else possessed this “new spirit” except the Migi-Hidari where as Ono told us, “one could get drunk with pride and dignity” (74). He also told us that this bar was one where only elite artists would gather and converse and use their paintings such as, “The Patriotic Spirit,” (74) as a form of combat to the communism going on in Japan which was before the war. From this Migi-Hidari being “a proud and respectable atmosphere” (75), I see it that these artist are playing the role that soldiers would for earning their county’s independence, but they are fighting for the way they think things should be in Japan, therefore they are patriotic artists in my book.
Another aspect of my finding to how the war ties to artist living in a floating world relates to when Ono worked for his first firm and why he decided to leave to work for the painter and print maker Seiji Moriyama. While Ono worked for Master Takeda’s firm as an artist, he soon was fed up with the “unhappy working conditions” (65) and disloyalty going on in the firm so he decided to leave. I saw this as a patriotic move on his behalf because after he explained to Tortoise what he had learned from working at the firm. Ono told Tortoise while he was strolling around on Tamagawa grounds, “While it was right to look up teachers, it was important to question their authority… To rise above the undesirable and decadent influences that have swamped us and have done so much to weaken the fibre of our nation these past ten years” (73).
With all of theses aspects of Ono’s life, I find it that the war symbolizes what Ono is trying to do as an artist floating in the world not holding his own two feet on the ground, and is literally connected to why the war got started which I believe awaits us later in the novel.
Ishiguro, Kazuo. An Artist Of The Floating World. New York Vintage international:1989
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